Land cover dynamics and surface water quality conditions in the Upper Wampu Watershed, Indonesia
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Abstract. Darnianti, Rauf A, Rahmawaty, Mulya MB, Delvian, Rahmanta. 2026. Land cover dynamics and surface water quality conditions in the Upper Wampu Watershed, Indonesia. Asian J For 10 (1): r100121. https://doi.org/10.13057/asianjfor/r100121. Land cover variation in upstream watersheds is spatially associated with differences in observed surface water quality characteristics. This study evaluates land cover dynamics between 2017 and 2024 and examines surface water quality conditions in the Upper Wampu Watershed, Karo District, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Land cover mapping utilized pre-classified 10 m Sentinel Land Cover datasets, validated using 10 independent points which yielded a localized accuracy of 90%. Water quality was assessed at 10 spatially distributed sampling stations using physicochemical and microbiological parameters and evaluated against Class II surface water standards set forth in Government Regulation No. 22 of 2021, serving as a raw water source for drinking water treatment. Forest cover increased slightly (+1.91%), built-up areas expanded markedly (+29.04%), cropland increased moderately (+4.72%), and grassland declined substantially (-36.80%), while water bodies remained relatively stable. Exceedances were observed for Total Suspended Solids (TSS), color, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), ammonia, and iron, whereas microbiological parameters remained below regulatory limits. Using Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA), specifically spatial overlay and Local Indicators of Spatial Association (LISA) clustering, the study identified spatial patterns in which settlement-dominated areas coincided with higher microbiological concentrations, while agriculturally dominated areas coincided with elevated organic indicators. These findings describe spatial associations rather than causal effects and are interpreted within the exploratory scope of the study. The river remains suitable as a source for drinking water treatment under current conditions, although continued monitoring is recommended to account for ongoing land-use change.
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